Daily Analysis

The role of the United Nations Special Representative of the Secretary-General (UN SRSG) on Violence Against Children is pivotal in global advocacy and policy development aimed at ending all forms of violence against children. This mandate includes addressing issues ranging from physical and psychological abuse to exploitation and neglect, with an overarching focus on building frameworks that ensure children are free from violence in both domestic and institutional contexts.  The UN SRSG’s advocacy underscores the importance of comprehensive legal and policy frameworks that protect children across all settings. It encourages countries to develop protective mechanisms that prioritise minors’ rights, safety, and rehabilitation. Emphasising the lasting impact of violence on children’s mental health and development, the UNSRSG highlights how children’s exposure to violence, whether state-sanctioned or otherwise, leaves deep, often irreversible impacts on mental health and development, with long-term consequences for society at large.

During the first global ministerial conference on ending violence against children in Bogotá, Colombia, leaders from over 100 countries shared their actions to protect children’s rights. The SRSG’s mandate provides crucial insights for nations like Nigeria, where systems for protecting vulnerable minors remain inadequately aligned with international child protection standards. The charging of several minors with treason in the country highlights both the urgency of protecting children in conflict with the law and the need for a recalibrated approach to juvenile justice in Nigeria.

The charges, reportedly connected to youth involvement in protests and political dissent, reveal a concerning trend towards criminalising juvenile political participation. Charging minors with treason not only places them in a precarious legal situation but also exposes them to the possibility of harsh penalties within a criminal justice system that lacks child-specific protections. This approach stands in stark contrast to global best practices, which prioritise rehabilitation and psychosocial support over punitive measures for minors, especially in political or conflict settings.

While Nigeria has ratified the Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) and passed the Child Rights Act (CRA), implementation gaps remain significant. As of December 28, 2023, all Nigerian states have adopted the CRA. However, implementation and enforcement of these laws remain to be seen. Existing juvenile justice structures often treat minors in a manner inconsistent with their developmental needs, with many juveniles subjected to the same detention conditions as adults. Furthermore, resources for psychological rehabilitation, legal representation, and social reintegration of children in conflict with the law are limited, exposing minors to harmful environments that only exacerbate trauma and hinder social reintegration.

To protect children effectively, Nigeria must prioritise comprehensive reforms that align juvenile justice systems with international standards and the SRSG’s recommendations.  Federal and state governments should expedite the domestication and implementation of the CRA, which provides the legal basis for protecting children’s rights in alignment with international standards. This would help prevent the criminalisation of minors and ensure that protections are extended uniformly across all regions of the country.

Nigeria must invest in expanding the network of specialised juvenile courts with trained personnel who understand child rights and developmental psychology. Such courts would provide minors with an environment that prioritises their rehabilitation and recognises the developmental differences between minors and adults. Something is currently lacking in the country, exemplified by the holding of minors in Kuje maximum prison in the same cells as adults.

Additionally, civil society organisations, in partnership with the UN SRSG, should intensify advocacy efforts to educate communities and authorities about children’s rights. Greater public awareness would reduce societal tolerance for violence against children and foster a protective environment. Nigeria must also invest in support services for minors who encounter the justice system. This includes access to mental health resources, legal aid, and educational support, which are critical for the holistic rehabilitation of children in conflict with the law. Importantly, a system that ensures accountability for the mistreatment of minors within the legal system is crucial. By establishing monitoring bodies that work closely with organisations like UNICEF and the UN SRSG, Nigeria can ensure that children’s rights are protected consistently across legal, social, and community levels.

Nigeria’s treatment of minors accused of treason underscores the pressing need for reform in child protection and juvenile justice. Implementing the recommendations of the UN SRSG on Violence Against Children would be a meaningful step toward ensuring that Nigerian children are protected from violence and treated in a manner that supports their development and reintegration into society.

In Nigeria, SMEs contribute approximately 48 per cent to the country’s GDP. It also makes up 84 per cent of Nigeria’s workforce. This shows SMEs’ importance in driving Nigeria’s economic growth and development. However, Nigerian SMEs are struggling, which has implications for the country’s economy.

Small and Medium-Sized Enterprises (SMEs) are crucial to developing nations like Nigeria. They are very vital to economic growth. They also contribute significantly to developing countries’ economic output levels due to their vast numbers. SMEs also play a crucial role in job creation and help reduce unemployment, promote innovation, and introduce new products and services.

The National Bureau of Statistics 2023 report showed that SMEs numbers went down by 45 per cent across various economic sectors. SMEs numbers dropped from 246,200 in 2020 to 170,098 in 2022. This drastic decline dentures Nigeria’s ambition to become a 1000,000,000,000 economy by 2030. Various SMEs owners listed over-taxation, electricity failure, and insecurity as major concerns of SMEs. These issues contribute to the decline of SMEs and Nigeria’s overall economic growth and prosperity.

One reason for Nigeria’s SMEs’ struggles is over-taxation. Nigeria has a complex and difficult-to-understand tax system. Nigeria’s over-taxation or multiple taxation comes from various levels of government on all economic activities and assets. The Federal Revenue Inland Service, which is at the federal level, administers corporate income tax, value-added tax (VAT), and withholding. At the state level are personal income, land use, and consumption taxes. Local government may impose tenement and property taxes. This makes taxpayers, especially SMEs, subject to over-taxation. Also, Nigerians pay over 60 official and 200 unofficial taxes. The Chairman of the Presidential Committee on Fiscal Policy and Tax Reform, Mr Taiwo Oyedele, stated that more unauthorised taxes affect all SMEs unevenly. This unnecessary and complicated tax burden stifles SMEs’ progress in Nigeria. Approximately 80 per cent of SMEs fail within five years. Over-taxation kills the growth of many SMEs in Nigeria.

Access to an uninterrupted electricity supply is vital for SMEs to realise profitability. Nonetheless, Nigeria constantly struggles with adequate and stable power supply. This significantly affects the generation of profits for SMEs and leads to loss of profits. A study on erratic power supply and SMEs in Akwa Ibom state, Nigeria, showed that SMEs owners recorded reductions in profit margins due to erratic power supply. This also led to a reduction in the production and sales of goods and services. These erratic power supplies stagnate the growth and development of SMEs. Inadequate power supply also leads to high operational costs. Nigerians spend ₦3.5 trillion on fuelling generators, making it difficult to effectively do business in the country. The negative impact of inadequate supply has a larger impact on the country’s growth and development. As SMEs struggle to grow due to unreliable electricity supply, this affects the attainability of the country’s sustainable development goals, especially eradicating poverty. Efficient growth and development of SMEs help lift people out of poverty. SMEs can create job opportunities for vulnerable and marginalised groups, spur economic development, and reduce income inequality and poverty. This becomes difficult to achieve with the constant struggles with electricity supply.

A strong and secure country will experience economic growth and development. When the property and lives of people are protected, businesses flourish. Nigeria has been grappling with insecurity for more than a decade. Northern Nigeria is struggling with banditry and terrorism. South-eastern Nigeria is struggling to contain the violent secessionist group known as the Indigenous People of Biafra (IPOB). Their compulsory sit-at-home orders make it harder for business owners to conduct business due to fear. This makes the country’s business unconducive for high-level performances. A scholarly study by Joseph Damjuma et al; on the effect of insecurity on SMEs performance in Nigeria found that insecurity issues such as terrorism negatively affected the output, capital utilisation, and value SMEs added to the country’s Gross Domestic Product. The stagnation of SMEs can also increase insecurity. Since insecurity contributes to the stagnation of SMEs growth, this further increases the country’s high unemployment and poverty rate, especially among youths. This makes people who are poor and without jobs vulnerable to recruitment by terrorist groups. As SMEs continue to struggle, fighting insecurity becomes harder because of high unemployment rates and poverty.

There is a need for tax harmonisation. The proposal for harmonising taxes promises to ease how businesses operate in Nigeria. The Nigerian government should ensure such a proposal becomes law. Before it is done, there should be relevant engagement with government agencies and business owners on the best way to harmonise taxes in the country. The tax process should be simplified and less cumbersome to foster economic growth and development. A new law that exempts SMEs from paying withholding tax will be fully implemented on the 1^st of January 2025. The government should properly evaluate its impact on SMEs two years after its implementation. This will create a better understanding of the strengths and weaknesses of the law and if there is a need for improvement.

To combat erratic power supply, expanding mini-grids will ease the means of doing business and help SMEs grow. It has the potential to provide a reliable power supply and can provide decentralised sustainable solutions. However, high the tariff design is troublesome. This is because developers charge high tariffs to cover investment and operational costs. To solve these developers should conduct thorough tariff studies to find a balance between consumers’ affordability and the financial viability of these projects. Innovative financing models such as pay-as-you-go can be utilised.

The government will need to effectively combat insecurity in Nigeria. One way to do this is to improve non-kinetic approaches to insecurity. Non-kinetic methods are simply using non-aggressive methods to combat insecurity. Between 2016 and 2017, the use of non-kinetic force led to 2000 Boko Harm members surrendering. Improving this method will be instrumental in combating insecurity. Fostering dialogues can also help fight insecurity. There should be a two-way dialogue between the Nigerian government and IPOB to bring critical solutions and long-lasting peace.

Africa has around 30 per cent of the world’s mineral reserves, 8 per cent of the world’s natural gas, and 12 per cent of the world’s oil reserves. Gold is one of the continent’s most profitable mineral resources. In 2021, Africa produced 680.3 metric of gold. Yet, its people have not felt the profitability of gold. In 2024, approximately 429 million of its population live below the extreme poverty of $2.15. Since its population is approximately 1.4 billion, roughly a third of the population is extremely poor. Illegal gold mining is widespread in the continent and has significantly contributed to poverty and other problems such as organised crime, economic loss, and environmental degradation.

Illegal mining of gold creates an environment for organised crime to flourish in Africa. It generates enormous profits and is attractive to organised criminal groups. Moreover, its high-value-to-volume ratio creates anonymity and the ability to move financial assets globally quickly. Gold has a reliable inherent value and is a viable option to settle debts. This allows criminals to launder illegal proceeds from gold and turn them into legitimate commodities. According to the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, criminals are willing to pay 105-110 per cent above the international market price to launder illicit proceeds and access international banks and markets. African countries have struggled with illegal gold mining as organised criminal organisations get into illegal gold mining. For instance, in Nigeria, the Zamfara state police arrested two Chinese nationals for allegedly taking part in the illicit extraction of gold. In July 2023, the Economic and Financial Crime Commission of Nigeria arrested 13 Chinese nationals for allegedly partaking in the illegal mining of gold. Russians are also involved in illegal mining through the help of politicians and locals. Other African countries, such as South Africa,  struggle with this issue as well.

Illegal mining of gold has led to substantial economic loss for the continent. A non-governmental organisation, Swissaid, reported that  321-474 tons of gold produced from illegal mining go undeclared yearly. At least 435 tons of gold from illicit activities are smuggled out of the continent. These yearly undeclared and smuggled gold are valued between $24-$35 billion. This represents a substantial loss for African states. A country like Ghana loses $2 billion annually to illegal gold mining. Nigeria loses $1.8 billion to illegal mining of gold. Illegal gold mining presents a significant economic challenge to a continent that struggles with extreme poverty.

Illegal mining of gold destroys the environment and endangers nature and individuals. In the Central African Republic, waste from the illicit extraction of gold pollutes water bodies in the country, resulting in the loss of floras and faunas. Toxic chemicals such as mercury and cyanide result in air pollution, posing a threat to local communities where gold mining is illegal. It negatively affects the health of individuals. Likewise, Ghana has seen over 60 per cent of its water resources contaminated by toxic chemicals from illegal gold mining. This resulted in hundreds of Ghanaians taking to the streets and urging the government to crack down on illegal gold mining.

Existing and consistent policy goes a long way in preventing the illegal mining of gold. However, this is something that some African states struggle with. For instance, in Nigeria, the lack of coherent and consistent policies created chaos and allowed illegal gold mining to flourish. Weak enforcement of regulatory laws also gives way to the illegal mining of gold. The cumbersome process of obtaining a mining license allows unlawful gold mining to flourish. For example, acquiring a mining license in Ghana can take up to three years. However, the productive life span of small-scale mining is usually 6-18 months. These miners also do not have geo-prospecting knowledge and lack capital. Also, there is a disconnect between rules and the realities of mining. Some miners use different techniques and have various expertise in extracting minerals. For instance, in Ghana, the regulatory framework for small-scale miners is not adequately defined and classified. Subsistence miners who use rudimentary tools for mining are subject to the same framework as a person with a more sophisticated tool. Some are unaware of this and may think they may not require a license if their operational activities do not destroy water bodies. Illegal mining has been persistent in Africa because influential people are involved. In countries such as South Africa, there are politicians engaged in illegal gold mining, allowing it to continue relentlessly.

African countries need to make comprehensive, consistent, coherent policies around mining. This will mean having a good understanding of the difference between artisanal mining and small-scale mining. Some African countries, such as South Africa, do not have a proper distinction between artisanal mining and small-scale mining. In some other countries, such as Mali, there is a distinction between the two. In Mali, small-scale mining is distinguished from artisanal mining by a permanent fixed installation created once an ore body is formed. The lack of distinction makes room for illegal gold mining. Policymakers in African countries must work with researchers who have extensively studied the artisanal and small-scale mining sectors. This will help policymakers understand the difference and build a sound policy framework incorporating artisanal and small-scale mining. This will help curb illegal gold mining.

According to a study on obtaining a mining license, getting a mining license in Africa can be cumbersome. The process for getting a license should consider the short-term and long-term miners. Easing the process of getting a mining license, especially for small-scale miners, will help control and curb the issue of illegal gold mining in Africa. This can be done by implementing digitalisation and technology solutions to make the process easier. There should be proper vetting and registration of mining companies. Proper vetting and an adequate registration process will help guard against foreign companies involved in illegal gold mining. There should be transparency and stakeholder engagement. This allows people to understand the requirements for obtaining a mining license.

African countries must enforce existing laws on illegal gold mining and create coherent policies. In Nigeria, the Mineral and Mining Act of 2007  prohibits the exploration and exploitation of minerals without authority. There have been talks about amending the act. Such an amendment should incorporate ASM and clearly define what constitutes illegal mining. African countries should severely punish perpetrators of unlawful gold mining. In response to the protest, the Ghanaian government has implemented new measures to fight against the illegal mining of gold. These new measures should be reviewed to ensure that they effectively curb the gold mining issue. On the regional level, the Economic Community of West African States need to formulate a firm policy around the illegal mining of gold. ECOWAS should coordinate member states to fight against the illegal mining of gold and ensure that each member state complies with the legal framework against illegal gold mining.

Youth unemployment in Nigeria remains a critical issue with far-reaching implications, contributing to economic stagnation and heightened insecurity and restiveness. As of 2023, over 40 per cent of Nigerian youths aged 15-34 are unemployed or partially employed. This is problematic for a country where 63 per cent of its population is below 25 years. The absence of suitable employment for this age group jeopardizes the stability of the communities by weakening the social order and facilitating criminality as well as militancy and radicalization.

Various factors facilitate this high incidence of unemployment, such as the disconnect between the education and training systems and the demands of employers and the economy. According to research by Muo, many Nigerian graduates are unemployed because their skill sets are irrelevant to industry needs, especially in rapidly expanding sectors such as technology. Furthermore, a mismatch between university outputs and industry needs makes it difficult to fill open positions; there is a worrisome propensity to ‘import’ expertise, even at entry levels.

Insecurity over the years has taken centre stage in Nigeria, and youth unemployment is one of the drivers of insecurity in Nigeria. When Youth face long-term joblessness, they become more susceptible to engaging in criminal activities or joining insurgent and militant groups. In northern Nigeria, groups such as Boko Haram have exploited youth unemployment to recruit foot soldiers, offering financial incentives and a sense of belonging to disillusioned Youth. Similarly, in the Niger Delta, unemployed Youth have taken up arms, participating in oil theft and pipeline vandalism to express grievances over lack of opportunities and government neglect.

Also, youth restiveness, often manifested through violent protests, vandalism, and armed robbery, is directly linked to unemployment. An ISS report highlights that lack of economic opportunities and the absence of sustainable livelihoods push young Nigerians toward criminality. A lack of meaningful engagement frustrates young people, leading them to vent their anger at the state or private institutions, as evidenced in the vandalism during the #EndBadGovernance Protests. Youth restiveness can also be driven by perceived injustice, poverty, and broken social norms. In parts of Northern Nigeria, unemployed Youth have been drawn into banditry, engaging in kidnappings and other violent crimes. The lure of quick financial rewards and the absence of job opportunities have made this illegal trade a lifeline for many young people.

The psychological and social effects of youth unemployment cannot be ignored. Prolonged joblessness leads to low self-esteem, frustration, and disillusionment, especially in a society where social status is often tied to employment. Research from the University of Ilorin identified unemployment and its link to mental health challenges such as depression, anxiety, and substance abuse among Youth (Abonyi et al.). Youth who face unemployment and an inability to meet basic needs are also more likely to become disconnected from political processes, losing faith in democratic institutions and governance. This often leads to radicalization and political violence, as unemployed Youth could be swayed by extremist ideologies or manipulated by political actors seeking to exploit their grievances.

The Nigerian government has launched various initiatives to combat youth unemployment, including the National Directorate of Employment (NDE) and the N-Power program, which offer vocational training and temporary work placements. However, these measures have fallen short of tackling the scope of the problem. Corruption, incompetence, and a lack of political will have hampered the success of these initiatives. For instance, a one-year investigation into the N-Power Scheme revealed that bribery and massive fraud were sabotaging the scheme. While the government continues implementing job creation initiatives, unemployment considerably outweighs the opportunities available. The private sector has also been unable to absorb young people owing to a poor business climate and a lack of incentives to generate sustainable jobs. Also, security strategies overshadow economic factors. Current security responses often focus on military solutions to address insurgencies, banditry, and criminality rather than tackling the root economic causes, such as unemployment. There is a need to strengthen efforts at integrating job creation into counterterrorism strategies.

Addressing youth unemployment could begin by developing comprehensive job creation plans. For instance, the Ministry of Labour and Employment, in partnership with local and international tech companies, could launch specialized digital training centres across states, focusing on coding, cybersecurity, and digital marketing skills that align with global job market demands. Similarly, the Central Bank of Nigeria, in collaboration with microfinance banks, could create a youth enterprise fund that offers low-interest loans and financial literacy programs to young entrepreneurs, empowering them to start and scale agribusinesses, renewable energy projects, and other sustainable ventures that can create local employment opportunities.

The Nigerian government must also emphasize fostering an atmosphere that encourages corporate growth and creates employment. This involves strengthening infrastructure, curbing corruption, and promoting the business sector to employ more young people. It is also critical to encourage young entrepreneurship by providing funding, mentorship, and training opportunities. Initiatives to help digital start-ups and other small enterprises have shown promise in lowering young unemployment in nations facing comparable difficulties.

Insecurity, mainly owing to youth unemployment, transcends borders. The Nigerian government should work with surrounding nations to address the cross-border consequences of unemployment and youth restiveness, especially in the battle against insurgent organizations. Public-private collaborations are vital for developing long-term job possibilities. Private sector investment in agriculture, manufacturing, and technology can help absorb a significant portion of the unemployed Youth.

Youth unemployment in Nigeria has social, economic, and security dimensions that demand urgent attention. The link between unemployment, youth restiveness, and insecurity is clear: when young people are deprived of opportunities, they are more likely to turn to crime, violence, or insurgency. There is a need to address not only the lack of jobs but also the underlying factors such as educational reform and private sector engagement.

The existence of Private Military Contractors (PMCs) worldwide is nothing new, especially with their constant involvement in an ever-conflict-ridden global theatre. Nigeria has been overwhelmed by insecurity, resulting in destabilisation and inadvertently taking a toll on citizens. The Nigerian government turned to unconventional means in its search for viable solutions to this menace: hiring Private Military Contractors. However, this approach has unleashed varying views for and against their employment for security purposes over the years. Recent developments have renewed the conversation around private military forces. In October 2024, Senator Mohammed Ali Ndume, representing Borno South, called on President Bola Ahmed Tinubu to hire military contractors as a short-term solution to combat Boko Haram and banditry in northern Nigeria. This proposal comes in response to another attack in Ngoshe, Gwoza Local Government Area on 1^st October 2024. The attack resulted in the deaths of five and the abduction of 15 others. Prior to the incident in Gwoza and the call from Senator Ndume, a political analyst, Issa Diawara, stated that the alternative to solving insecurity on the continent could be PMCs.

Recent calls align with practices in some countries where governments engage military contractors to complement their forces in specific conflicts. Countries like the United States, Russia, and France have often employed these private actors to enhance military operations. Contractors, equipped with advanced military hardware, could swiftly neutralise insurgent threats, working alongside the Nigerian military and the Civilian Joint Task Force (CJTF), who possess valuable local knowledge of the terrain. From the angle of urgency, mercenaries could handle immediate threats while the government recruits and trains Nigerian youths to expand the military in the long run.

In a Nextier publication, the recent calls are also linked to the historical presence of some PMCs in the country. One such PMC with a significant presence in Nigeria is South African-Based Executive Outcomes, which has its presence in other African countries. At some point during the 1990s, it was reported that Executive Outcomes aided the Nigerian government through military actions against various rebel groups within the Niger Delta region. Also, PMC Conella Services was engaged by President Goodluck Jonathan to fight Boko Haram in December 2014. More recently, the Russian Mercenary Group Wagner group has maintained its presence in Africa especially seen with the invitation by the Niger Republic Junta. It is deducible that they are readily available to offer their services to Nigeria, which has grappled with insecurity over time.

The Nigerian government’s consideration of exploring PMCs as a potential solution further stems from their ability to offer specialised skills and resources that are not readily available within the state apparatus. PMCs can provide trained personnel, modern equipment, and tactical expertise in combating insurgency and terrorism. This can significantly enhance the capacity and effectiveness of national security forces. Moreover, hiring PMCs offers operational flexibility and adaptability that the conventional armed forces often cannot achieve. Because they are private organisations, PMCs are not limited by bureaucratic red tape or political concerns that prevent government troops from acting on time. This means they can respond fast enough to new security challenges, making them a choice for authorities grappling with immediate security problems.

However, this employment of PMCs has its load of problems and ethical difficulties. Human rights abuses and lack of accountability are among the primary concerns. They operate outside established legal structures that oversee the activities of military forces in a country; hence, there is unease in their actions and compliance with international law, as well as respect for human rights. Proper oversight and regulation must be implemented so that using these contractors does not encourage impunity or aggravate existing violations against human rights. For instance, there was praise for the Executive Outcomes group when it helped quell unrest, but they were also accused of using excessive force and violating human rights.

Furthermore, there are economic implications associated with employing PMCs. Engaging private security providers is often expensive, as they operate on a profit-driven business model. This raises questions about the transparency of procurement processes, potential corruption, and the long-term financial sustainability of relying on private contractors for security needs. One notable debate involved the activities of a private military company known as Blackwater, which allegedly provided protection services to oil companies running in the Niger Delta area. In 2007, Blackwater guards took part in a shooting in Baghdad, Iraq, that led to the deaths of several non-combatants. This event raised worries about who was responsible for and overseeing private military companies working in conflict areas and brought calls for more rules over their activities.

Despite these challenges, PMCs can offer valuable support in addressing Nigeria’s security concerns. However, their usage should be accompanied by robust regulatory frameworks, strong accountability mechanisms, and a clear delineation of responsibilities between the government and private entities. Establishing oversight bodies to monitor the activities of PMCs and ensure adherence to international standards and legal frameworks becomes imperative. On one hand, the engagement of military contractors could offer a swift, albeit temporary, solution to the nation’s escalating insecurity. On the other, it may normalise the reliance on privatised military force, blurring the lines between state and non-state actors. This development mirrors global concerns about the increasing influence of hired guns in modern conflicts; utilising Private Military Contractors presents a debatable solution to Nigeria’s insecurity. Also, while they can offer specialised skills, resources, and operational flexibility, concerns regarding human rights abuses, accountability, and long-term financial sustainability must be addressed. It is essential to establish robust monitoring mechanisms to oversee PMC activities. It may include mandating PMCs to make regular reports on their operations, finances and compliance with international human rights norms. More importantly, Nigeria must have comprehensive legislation that will govern the operations of PMCs in Nigeria. This can necessitate licensing obligations for companies with tight conduct and professional standards. Wrongdoings under these rules should attract penalties, including withdrawal of licenses and legal action where necessary.

Furthermore, there is a need to ensure that personnel in PMCs receive sufficient education regarding international humanitarian law, human rights, and engagement protocols. Prosecuting them legally would be one way of holding PMCs accountable for violating these standards. The Nigerian government needs to invest in strengthening the capacity and effectiveness of Nigerian security forces, including the military and law enforcement agencies, to respond appropriately to the internal security challenges they face. As Nigeria grapples with this evolving security landscape, the conversation around private military contractors reflects broader anxieties about sovereignty, governance, and the future of national security.

Vote-buying, or exchanging goods, services, or money in return for votes, is a prevalent and growing problem undermining the integrity of Nigeria’s electoral process. According to the National Bureau of Statistics (NBS), the 2023 general elections recorded a 22 per cent incidence of vote-buying, a five per cent increase from the 17  per cent recorded in the 2019 elections. This worrying trend has been heightened in several elections, including the recently concluded Edo governorship election, which was marred by allegations of vote-buying. In some instances, voters are offered between ₦3,000 to ₦10,000 in exchange for their votes.

The persistence of vote-buying is not limited to Nigeria. According to a 2022 report by the International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance (IDEA), countries like Bulgaria, Indonesia, and the Philippines also struggle with this problem, with one-third of voters admitting to being offered money, food or favours in exchange for their votes. Similar trends were observed in the Dominican Republic and Sierra Leone, where a quarter of voters reported vote-buying attempts, and in Argentina, one-fifth of voters experienced the same. These statistics indicate a broader, systemic problem that undermines democratic processes across multiple countries, especially developing democracies.

Vote-buying has severe consequences for any country where it thrives, and Nigeria is no exception. One of the most significant costs is its ability to perpetuate corrupt politicians in power. By bribing voters, these politicians can circumvent the democratic process and maintain their grip on leadership, even if they are incompetent or lack the vision to improve the country. This practice prevents qualified individuals from taking office and stifles the development of innovative ideas and policies that could benefit the nation. When vote-buying compromises elections, the cycle of corruption and stagnation becomes self-perpetuating, hindering the country’s progress and leaving citizens disillusioned with the political system.

Furthermore, vote-buying can significantly weaken a country’s democratic institutions. In Nigeria, where democracy is already facing numerous challenges, the prevalence of vote-buying exacerbates these problems. It erodes public trust in the electoral process, discourages voter participation, and undermines the government’s legitimacy. The consequences of vote-buying extend beyond the political sphere and have a detrimental impact on various aspects of society. It can lead to economic instability, social unrest, and a decline in public services. When politicians are more concerned with securing their positions through bribery than serving the people’s interests, the country will inevitably suffer.

There are various reasons why vote-buying persists in Nigeria. Among these are poverty, social and cultural norms, and ignorance. Nigeria’s economic downturn in recent years has exacerbated this problem, with the poverty rate increasing substantially. In 2023, Nigeria’s poverty rate stood at 38.9 per cent, meaning that 87 million of the population live below the poverty line. This makes Nigeria the second poorest country in the world. In such an environment, the lure of vote-buying becomes powerful. Politicians exploit this economic vulnerability by offering cash or material incentives for votes. Various studies, including those conducted in Nigeria and other African nations, reveal a strong correlation between poverty and vote-selling. A Chatham House survey on vote-buying in Nigeria found that economically deprived individuals are particularly susceptible to selling their votes, a vulnerability politicians readily exploit to gain power.

Social and cultural norms also play a significant role in vote-buying persistence. In many parts of Nigeria, vote-buying has become an accepted part of the political landscape, driven by the widespread belief that corruption is pervasive and unavoidable. This fatalistic view, deeply embedded in societal and cultural norms, creates an environment where vote-buying is seen as just another facet of political life rather than a violation of democratic principles. The notion that “everyone is doing it” leads to a self-fulfilling prophecy, where citizens participate in corrupt practices because they believe it is inevitable. Over time, this has allowed vote-buying to become normalised, reinforcing a culture of political apathy and cynicism. Additionally, Nigeria’s discontent with democracy and a pervasive distrust of politicians fuel the acceptance of vote-buying. Many Nigerians, frustrated with the lack of meaningful political change, see no harm in selling their votes, perceiving it as a rare opportunity to gain something tangible from an otherwise corrupt and dysfunctional system.

Ignorance also contributes to the persistence of vote-buying. Low levels of education and political awareness leave many Nigerians vulnerable to the deceptive tactics of politicians who manipulate the electorate for personal gain. People with limited knowledge of the consequences of vote-buying may not fully understand how it undermines democracy and perpetuates bad governance. This ignorance creates a vicious cycle, as those who sell their votes remain trapped in poverty and marginalisation, unaware that their actions contribute to the very conditions that sustain their hardship. The lack of civic education and awareness among many Nigerians ensures that vote-buying continues to thrive, with the electorate often unaware of the long-term harm it causes to themselves and society.

The Nigeria Electoral Act 2022 lists vote buying as an electoral offence. The law states that a person who directly or indirectly gives money or gifts to influence a person’s vote or make a person refrain from voting commits an offence. It also states that if a voter receives money or such gift commits an offence. Individuals who give and receive money will be liable on conviction to 12 months imprisonment, ₦500,000, or both. Despite this law, vote-buying persists. This shows a lack of law enforcement, as well as a lack of education and ignorance about the dangers of this practice. This indicates that simply having laws in place is not enough without effective enforcement and public awareness.

To combat vote-buying, the government must take decisive steps. The effectiveness of any law depends on how strictly it is enforced. Therefore, the government must ensure that the provisions of the Electoral Act are enforced without exceptions. This could involve stricter punishment for anyone who engages or receives any gift, money, or other favour in the hope that such things will affect the electoral process. In addition, there should be robust policies that protect whistleblowers from retaliation, as this would encourage more people to report instances of vote-buying and contribute to its reduction.

Addressing the socioeconomic realities that drive vote-buying is equally crucial. As mentioned earlier, poverty is one of the main factors behind the persistence of vote-buying in Nigeria. The government must tackle the root causes by investing in education, particularly skills development, and creating policies that stimulate economic growth. Reducing poverty would diminish the need for citizens to sell their votes in exchange for short-term gains. Furthermore, the government must address other socioeconomic concerns, such as insecurity and lack of jobs. This will reduce the need for citizens to sell their votes. Public awareness campaigns are also essential. In the Independent National Electoral Commission (INEC), in collaboration with non-governmental organisations, the government (local, state and national) must raise awareness about the dangers of vote-buying. Civic education initiatives should be heightened to educate citizens about the laws prohibiting vote-buying and its negative impact on governance and national development.

Cultism has long plagued Nigeria’s South East region, and in recent years, Anambra State has become a hotspot for violent cult clashes. Cult groups, once confined to campuses, have spilt over into communities, wreaking havoc through organised crime, political manipulation, and territorial battles. According to the Nextier Violent Conflicts Database, between September 2023 – September 2024, there were six cult clashes in the South East, with Anambra recording four incidents. Anambra State, with its cities like Onitsha and Awka, has witnessed disturbing incidences of cult-related violence. Cult groups often engage in turf wars, resulting in the deaths of their members and innocent bystanders. The allure of power, quick money, and protection draws in many unemployed and vulnerable youths, making the state a hotbed of criminal activity.

Cultists have recently tightened their grip over Awka and its surrounds, with confrontations between opposing factions killing over 20 people since Easter Sunday of 2024. Additionally, these areas are located near the Governor’s Lodge and the operational headquarters of the Anambra State Police Command. Still, the culprits have maintained their murdering spree with little pushback from security personnel. The attack in Awka South Local Government Area is a stark reminder of the persistent danger posed by cultism in Anambra. On October 20, 2024, a gang of suspected cultists opened fire on a rival group at a restaurant, which led to the death of 15 people and others severely injured. Police reports suggest that a rivalry between two cult factions sparked the fight. The incident has sent shockwaves through the state and the country, raising concerns about the state government’s ability to contain the spiralling violence. In another incident in May 2024, suspected cultists gunned down one person at a filling station at Aroma roundabout, and the following morning, a repeat of the incident occurred in the same area. Reports revealed the incident stemmed from a battle for control.

The Awka South cult clash is not an isolated incident but part of a broader security crisis in Anambra State. Over the last few years, the state has been grappling with various forms of violent crime, including kidnappings, armed robbery, and political thuggery, often fuelled by cult-related activities. Cult members frequently engage in extortion, harassing local businesses, market traders, and transport operators. The cyclical violence between rival groups has created a climate of fear and insecurity, particularly in urban areas like Awka, Onitsha, and Nnewi. Anambra’s status as a commercial hub makes it particularly vulnerable to crimes. Extortion of money from businesses and kidnapping of individuals are common occurrences, with cult members playing key roles in these criminal enterprises. With cult groups operating with relative impunity, the safety of the state’s residents has been jeopardised, forcing many communities to resort to local vigilantes.

The Anambra State government, under the leadership of Governor Charles Soludo, has repeatedly pledged to tackle the menace of cultism and restore peace to the state. In the wake of the Awka South incident, the state government condemned the violence and vowed to bring the perpetrators to justice. Also, security forces in Anambra, including the Nigerian Police Force, the military, and local vigilante groups, have been actively working to curb cult activities. In the past, police raids led to the arrest of suspected cult members and the confiscation of weapons. Despite these efforts, cult-related violence has persisted, with some attributing the problem to the deep entrenchment of cultism in the political and socio-economic fabric of the state.

A major challenge in addressing cultism is the alleged collusion between some political elites and cult groups. During election periods, politicians have been known to hire cultists as thugs, offering protection in exchange for violent services. This political patronage not only emboldens cult members but also makes it difficult for law enforcement agencies to dismantle their operations effectively.

In response to the worsening security situation, the government has encouraged the formation of community vigilante groups to assist formal security forces. These groups have played a crucial role in curbing minor crimes and maintaining order in areas where the police presence is limited. Community leaders and civil society organisations have also called for a more holistic approach to combating cultism, emphasising the need to address the root causes of the problem. Poverty and unemployment are often cited as key drivers of cult membership. Without providing alternative livelihood pathways for youth, efforts to stem the tide of cultism will be short-lived. The recent cult clash in Awka South reminds us of Anambra State’s security challenges. As cult groups continue to wield power and instil fear, the government must intensify its efforts to root out these criminal elements. Beyond punitive measures, there is a pressing need for long-term solutions that address the socio-economic factors driving youth into cultism.

Mental health is a global and public issue that requires serious attention in Nigeria. According to Prof. Taiwo Obindo, the president of the Association of Psychiatrists in Nigeria (APN), stated that over 60 million Nigerians suffer from mental health disorders. Despite the scale of the problem, there is a limited understanding of mental health in the country. This lack of awareness exacerbates the growing mental health crisis, particularly in conflict-affected areas. Religious and cultural beliefs, lack of experts on mental health and mental well-being, and lack of mental care infrastructure, especially for people in conflict zones, make life difficult for those facing mental health crises in the country.

The perception and attitudes of Nigerians toward people with mental health illness pose a significant challenge for victims of mental health diseases. The perception of mental illness that some Nigerians hold is that of people walking around in the streets naked with tattered clothes. However, eating disorders, anger issues, and depression are often not considered as part of mental health illnesses, leading to a lack of priority given to mental well-being. Religion also plays a significant role in shaping these perceptions. There is a widely held belief that mental illness is from supernatural causes such as evil spirits, voodoo or witchcraft. This spiritualisation of mental health can lead to stigmatisation, further isolating those affected. As a result, individuals may seek help from traditional healers or spiritual leaders, who often lack the qualifications to provide proper mental healthcare, worsening the situation for those in need.

Funding is a crucial part of improving mental health services in Nigeria. However, funding for mental health services is inadequate across the country.  Mental health infrastructure is funded by 3.3-4 per cent of the national health budget, leading to poor-quality treatment for patients and a shortage of mental health professionals. According to a news report, the number of medical professionals available to address mental health needs in Nigeria is insufficient.  The country has just eight neuropsychiatric hospitals and fewer than 15 state-run neuropsychiatric centres. In rural areas, the scarcity is even more severe, with psychiatrists almost non-existent, making it difficult for individuals in these regions to access quality mental healthcare. This also contributes to underreporting of the consequences of untreated mental health illnesses such as suicide.

Nigeria’s economic downturn has exacerbated the shortage of mental health professionals, fuelling a brain drain within the healthcare system.  As noted by the  President of the Association of Psychiatrists in Nigeria (APN), the country should have one psychiatrist per 10,000 people, but currently, there are fewer than 250 psychiatrists for Nigeria’s entire population. With the population projected to reach 400 million by 2050, this would mean one psychiatrist serving 864,000 people. Due to economic hardship, many psychiatrists immigrate to places like the United Kingdom (UK). Post covid, Nigeria’s brain drain has significantly increased, with over 100 Nigerian psychiatrists leaving the country in the last three years. The economic crisis has had a particularly severe impact on mental healthcare, with rising inflation and limited job opportunities in the health sector diminishing incentives for psychiatrists to remain in Nigeria. In contrast, foreign medical institutions actively recruit healthcare professionals and offer lucrative payments for their services., further encouraging the exodus of Nigeria’s mental health specialists.

Conflict zones pose a significant challenge for individuals suffering from mental health conditions in Nigeria. People in these areas are often exposed to traumatic experiences, leading to mental health disorders such as post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Unfortunately, access to necessary mental healthcare is severely limited due to the destruction of health infrastructure caused by ongoing violence. For instance, in 2022, Nigeria recorded 43 incidents in which 37 health workers were kidnapped, 11 health supplies ransacked, and 11 health workers killed. When further broken down, 17 of these incidents happened in the Northeastern states of Borno and Yobe, which are worse hit by terrorism. This leads to a significant shortage of healthcare professionals in these zones due to insecurity, making it almost impossible for those experiencing mental health problems to get adequate treatment.

In addressing the challenge, former president, Muhammadu Buhari, in January 2023, signed the Mental Health Bill into law, replacing the lunacy act 1958. The new law offers some protection to people with mental health conditions, including the freedom to participate in their treatment plans. It bans the dehumanisation of people living with mental health conditions and aims to increase community-based coverage to promote access to mental health services. However, the law allows for involuntary treatment and coercion in other forms, contrary to international human rights laws and treaties. Nigeria’s healthcare system is still underdeveloped and lacks modern medical facilities, with its healthcare indicators being some of the worst in Africa. To tackle this problem, Nigeria approved the second National Strategic Health Development Plan (NSHD 2018-2022). The Nigerian Sovereign Investment Authority (NSIA), in partnership with the Federal Ministry of Health, signed a series of agreement to help modernise and expand healthcare services with the help of the private sector. Though these steps are commendable, there is still a long way to go before there will be any improvement in mental healthcare services for victims of mental illnesses.

Understanding a problem is vital in tackling it. The government must invest more in research on mental health and well-being. Public-private partnerships, along with collaboration with civil society organisations (CSOs) and non-governmental organisations (NGOs), should be leveraged to raise awareness and sensitise communities about mental health issues. There is a need for Nigerians to shift from superstitious beliefs about mental illness to a more evidence-based understanding of its nature and its impact on individuals and society.

Funding is critical to improving Nigeria’s mental health infrastructure and services. The government must significantly increase investment in this area. One gap in Nigeria’s mental health landscape is the lack of accessible hotline support for those struggling with mental illness. The government should incentivize the establishment of formal and informal hotline support systems to provide accessible and confidential resources for those in need.  In conflict zones, humanitarian aid should integrate mental health services for affected populations, including the provision of psychosocial support for those suffering from mental health conditions. This would help address the unique mental health challenges faced by individuals in conflict-affected areas.

Additionally, the government must tackle the root causes of the brain drain in the medical sector. By creating job opportunities and improving security, Nigeria can incentivise psychiatrists and other mental health professionals to remain in the country, helping to close the gap in mental healthcare provision and offer much-needed support to individuals experiencing mental health challenges.

Ritual killings have become a significant social vice. These gruesome acts often involve the murder of individuals whose body parts are used in rituals believed to bring wealth, power, or protection. The increase in ritual killings highlights deeper economic, social, and cultural challenges facing the country. This disturbing trend persists, particularly among the youth, as a result of poverty, high unemployment, and societal pressure.  With approximately 33 per cent of the population unemployed, young people are disproportionately affected by the lack of job opportunities. This has led to a generation feeling increasingly desperate to break free from the cycle of poverty. Some are lured into the belief that ritual killings provide a quick path to wealth. A newspaper investigation reveals that many Nigerians strongly believe wealth can be attained through supernatural means, a notion that is often reinforced by cultural beliefs and the glorification of wealth in popular culture.

A report shows how economic hardships propel youths into dangerous means of seeking quick, easy money. The belief in supernatural wealth through rituals is thus appealing in a world with increasing pressures to ‘make it big materially and fast’, is often prioritised over legitimate opportunities. The desperation-imbued mindset has been fuelled by the idea that “money rituals” have a way of ensuring escape from poverty. Nextier, in its research publication “Ritual Killing Among Nigerian Youth,” identifies a surge in cybercrime as another contributing factor. This is such that usage of ICT to commit crimes and the need for “good fortune” pushes pepetrators into ritual killings. Additionally, ritual killings, often linked to the pursuit of “good fortune,” frequently target women as victims.

Social media and pop culture have also played a significant role in shaping Nigerian youth’s perceptions. Platforms like Instagram, TikTok, and Facebook showcase lavish lifestyles, fuelling the “get rich quick” mentality. The pressure to achieve material success can be overwhelming, especially for those struggling in Nigeria’s ailing economy. Nollywood, the country’s film industry, has also contributed to shaping public perceptions of money rituals. At times, films and music videos depict human sacrifice or “juju” as a means to acquire wealth, normalising the idea that such practices are a gateway to success. These portrayals desensitise the younger generation, reinforcing harmful misconceptions that these acts lead to prosperity and fame.

Peer pressure or involvement with cult groups are also significant drivers of ritual killings in Nigeria. Cultism, a persistent issue particularly in universities and urban centres, often leads young people into criminal activities, ranging from armed robbery to ritualistic practices. These cult groups prey on vulnerable youths, offering promises of power, influential positions, or protection in exchange for participation in violent rituals. Some cults and criminal networks have even commercialised ritual killings, trading human body parts on the black market for use in various ceremonies or rituals. Also there is a growing industry in several parts of the country, where human body parts are bought and sold like commodities.

The impact of ritual killings extends far beyond the immediate victims and their families, affecting society as a whole. These killings have fostered a culture of fear and mistrust, with people becoming increasingly wary of strangers and even those they know who might be linked to such practices. In communities where these acts have occurred, paranoia has set in, exacerbated by the inefficiency of law enforcement. Moreover, the involvement of young people in these crimes represents a significant loss of human potential. Instead of contributing positively to society, these youth engage in destructive behaviour that erodes social cohesion. The moral decay that accompanies ritual killings further undermines Nigeria’s efforts to build a just and peaceful society.

While the Nigerian government has made efforts to curb ritual killings, the problem persists. Law enforcement agencies face significant challenges in apprehending perpetrators, especially in rural areas where traditional beliefs protect those involved in these acts. There have been arrests and convictions, which are insufficient to deter future crimes. The National Orientation Agency (NOA) has undertaken campaigns to educate the public about the dangers of ritual killings and the fallacy of believing in supernatural wealth. Religious leaders and community elders have also spoken out against the practice, emphasising the need for moral education and the rejection of harmful traditions.

Schools, religious institutions, and community organisations should be deeply involved in ensuring that values of hard work, integrity, and respect for human life are instilled in the youth. Programmes through the National Orientation Agency must be mounted as a counterbalance to social media and pop culture’s influences on the youth. Such programmes can aid young people to critically assess what they see online and resist the temptation to pursue wealth through illegitimate means. Alongside education, there is a pressing need for job creation and poverty alleviation programmes that offer real economic opportunities to Nigeria’s youth. Equipping young people with skills training, mentorship, and access to capital for entrepreneurship provides alternatives to the path of ritual killings.

Ritual killings among Nigerian youths are a symptom of deeper socio-economic and cultural problems. Poverty, unemployment, cultural beliefs, and social media pressure have contributed to the growth of this horrific practice. While it remains a serious issue for the government and society, more must be done to address the underlying causes of economic desperation, moral decay, and the glorification of wealth. Education, awareness campaigns, and job creation are crucial to eradicating ritual killings and providing Nigerian youth with a future grounded in integrity and hard work.

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Ritual Killings Among Nigerian Youth

Floods have become a common occurrence in Nigeria in recent decades. The country has witnessed devastating floods that have toppled livelihoods, disrupted communities, and displaced thousands of people. The frequency of these floods has made Nigeria one of Africa’s most flood-prone countries. At the end of August and the beginning of September 2012, most parts of the country experienced severe floods, making it one of the worst. By the end of October 2012, 7.7 million people were affected by the flood, with 2.1 million people displaced, 363 reported dead, and almost 600,000 houses damaged or destroyed. The subsequent years have seen devastating floods that have caused much damage and destruction. The latest flood, which occurred in Borno state, killed 30 people, displaced over 400,000, and affected 1 million people.

The aftermath of recent floods in Nigeria paints a troubling picture. While experts in flood risk management acknowledge the role of climate change, they agree that preventable human factors largely drive frequent and severe flooding. Poor urban planning, troublesome dams, and over-reliance on foreign expertise and technologies are some of the key contributors. These issues exacerbate the flooding and complicate efforts to manage what could otherwise be a more avoidable crisis.

Nigeria’s rapidly increasing population is projected to hit 400 million by 2050. This rising population will drive the need for urbanisation. However, ineffective government planning has led to various challenges in urban planning. The country faces a critical shortage of town planning experts, which hinders effective flood mitigation. The National President of Nigeria Institute of Town Planners, Nathaniel Atebije, stated that, unlike developed countries with at least one town planner for every 3000 residents, Nigerians could only boast one town planner per 70,000 persons. The shortage of competent town planners leads to haphazard building practices. For example, in Port-Harcourt, a city in Rivers State and other state capitals, people erect structures on canals and other water channels. These obstructions block water flow, resulting in devastating floods. Furthermore, the absence of proper drainage systems and inadequate maintenance of existing ones worsen the nation’s flood management efforts.

Nigeria’s poor management of dams significantly contributes to the country’s devasting floods. Most dams are built to serve multiple purposes. Dams such as the Kainji and Jebba dams on the Niger River, the Shiroro Dam on the Kaduna River, and the Kiri Dam in Adamawa State were designed for multiple purposes, including hydroelectric power generation, fisheries, and flood control. However, flood management requires reservoirs to have adequate capacity before the rainy season. In Nigeria, the emphasis on hydropower generation often leaves these dams at full capacity year-round, compromising their ability to manage excess water during floods. Additionally, the government’s inadequate maintenance of these dams exacerbates the problem, leading to structural failures. For instance, the Alau Dam collapse, which triggered the Maiduguri flood of September 10, 2024, is not an isolated event. The Alau Dam had previously collapsed in 1994, and similar incidents, such as the Bunkure Dam collapse in the early 1990s, have caused extensive damage, including the destruction of farms along riverbanks. These recurring failures highlight Nigeria’s urgent need for better dam maintenance and flood control measures.

In flood risk management (FRM), Nigeria heavily relies on foreign expertise and technologies, often overlooking more cost-effective and eco-friendly non-structural alternatives. Foreign contractors managing FRM projects frequently lack an in-depth understanding of local conditions. Additionally, the projects they oversee often neglect soft components such as community advocacy, education, stakeholder engagement, and consultation. This approach hinders the transfer of knowledge to local communities and fails to foster a shared sense of responsibility in flood prevention, ultimately weakening the long-term sustainability and effectiveness of flood management efforts.

The Nigerian government has, in previous times, taken action to manage floods. In 2018, the government inaugurated five Emergency Operation Centres. These centres were responsible for providing humanitarian support to 12 states that were affected by the 2018 flood, and they were responsible for providing, planning, organising, directing, and supervising the deployment of resources to affected state governments, local authorities, and communities. In 2019, the government turned to a more proactive approach, and together with the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (IFRC), the Disaster Relief Emergency Fund (DREF) was created. The fund helped with cash transfers to support livelihood needs and provide water, sanitation and hygiene services (WASH). In 2021, the Flood Emergency Preparedness and Response Plan was inaugurated to enhance interagency coordination. The Nigerian Hydrological Service Agency (NHSA) created a web-based flood mitigation and response planning app. While these measures have been implemented, they have yielded few results. There is a need for the government to become more proactive than reactionary in its approach to flood mitigation and response.

Nigeria’s growing population requires the government to make adequate urbanisation plans to respond to and mitigate flood risk. Nigeria’s urban planning should be geared towards green engineering, which will be effective in flood prevention. Green engineering is using engineering processes and methods to minimise pollution and improve the environment. It reduces risk to human health and the environment. A good example of green engineering is underground infiltration trenches. This was used in Minnesota, United States and reduced water runoff volumes by 77 per cent.

One of the main issues with the response to floods in Nigeria is the lack of coordination. Improved coordination among federal, state, and local government agencies will be crucial for effectively responding to floods and mitigating the risk. Also, there is a need for transparency and accountability among all sectors of government involved in flood management to ensure proper management and response. Regarding FRM, coordination and collaboration between foreign contractors, local communities, and relevant stakeholders will be vital in preventing future floods. Moreover, soft components, including advocacy, education, involvement of stakeholders, and consultations, should be included in project development to build a sense of ownership and responsibility in flood prevention.

The government must also ensure proper maintenance of dams. Regular inspections will help identify and rectify any issues promptly. Additionally, it is vital to manage dam operations effectively; once reservoirs reach maximum capacity, water should be released before the onset of the flooding season, with adequate measures in place to protect nearby communities.